Studies

On Ecology

These studies collectively highlight the profound impact that wolves can have on ecosystems, from regulating prey populations to fostering biodiversity and promoting vegetation recovery.

1. Ripple, W.J., & Beschta, R.L. (2004). Wolves and the Ecology of Fear: Can Predation Risk Structure Ecosystems?
- Bioscience, 54(8), 755-766.
- This study examines how the presence of wolves affects the behavior of prey species like elk, leading to changes in vegetation and ecosystem dynamics.

2. Ripple, W.J., & Beschta, R.L. (2012). Trophic Cascades in Yellowstone: The First 15 Years After Wolf Reintroduction.
- Biological Conservation, 145(1), 205-213.
- This research highlights the ecological changes in Yellowstone National Park following the reintroduction of wolves, including the recovery of vegetation and increased biodiversity.

3. Hebblewhite, M., White, C.A., Nietvelt, C.G., McKenzie, J.A., Hurd, T.E., Fryxell, J.M., Bayley, S.E., & Paquet, P.C. (2005). Human Activity Mediates a Trophic Cascade Caused by Wolves.
- Ecology, 86(8), 2135-2144.
- This study explores how human activities influence the trophic cascade effects initiated by wolves, particularly in the Canadian Rockies.

4. Smith, D.W., Peterson, R.O., & Houston, D.B. (2003). Yellowstone After Wolves.
- Bioscience, 53(4), 330-340.
- This paper discusses the ecological impact of wolf reintroduction in Yellowstone, including changes in prey populations and vegetation.

5. Fortin, D., Beyer, H.L., Boyce, M.S., Smith, D.W., Duchesne, T., & Mao, J.S. (2005). Wolves Influence Elk Movements: Behavior Shapes a Trophic Cascade in Yellowstone National Park.
- Ecology, 86(5), 1320-1330.
- This study examines how wolves influence elk movement patterns, leading to broader ecological changes in Yellowstone.

6. Ripple, W.J., & Beschta, R.L. (2007). Restoring Yellowstone’s Aspen with Wolves.
- Biological Conservation, 138(3-4), 514-519.
- This research focuses on the role of wolves in the recovery of aspen trees in Yellowstone, demonstrating the broader ecological benefits of predator reintroduction.

7. Beschta, R.L., & Ripple, W.J. (2009). Large Predators and Trophic Cascades in Terrestrial Ecosystems of the Western United States.
- Biological Conservation, 142(11), 2401-2414.
- This paper reviews the role of large predators, including wolves, in creating trophic cascades that benefit terrestrial ecosystems.

8. Ripple, W.J., & Beschta, R.L. (2011). Trophic Cascades in Terrestrial Ecosystems: A Review of the Effects of Large Carnivores on Plants.
- Biological Conservation, 142(11), 2401-2414.
- This review synthesizes research on how large carnivores like wolves influence plant communities through trophic cascades.

On Livestock

These studies collectively highlight that while wolf predation on livestock does occur, the overall rate is often lower than perceived, and effective management strategies can further mitigate these conflicts.

1. Mech, L.D. (1996). A New Era for Carnivore Conservation.
- Wildlife Society Bulletin, 24(3), 397-401.
- This study discusses how the actual impact of wolves on livestock is often lower than perceived, emphasizing the importance of accurate data in carnivore conservation.

2. Musiani, M., Mamo, C., Boitani, L., Callaghan, C., Gates, C.C., Mattei, L., Visalberghi, E., Breck, S., & Volpi, G. (2003). Wolf Depredation Trends and the Use of Barriers to Protect Livestock in Western North America.
- Conservation Biology, 17(6), 1538-1547.
- This research examines trends in wolf depredation on livestock and evaluates the effectiveness of various mitigation strategies.

3. Oakleaf, J.K., Mack, C., & Murray, D.L. (2003). Effects of Wolves on Livestock Calf Survival and Movements in Central Idaho.
- Journal of Wildlife Management, 67(2), 299-306.
- This study investigates the impact of wolves on livestock calf survival and movements, finding that the overall rate of livestock loss due to wolves is relatively low.

4. Treves, A., & Karanth, K.U. (2003). Human-Carnivore Conflict and Perspectives on Carnivore Management Worldwide.
- Conservation Biology, 17(6), 1491-1499.
- This paper provides a global perspective on human-carnivore conflicts, including data showing that wolf predation on livestock is often lower than commonly believed.

5. Harper, E.K., Paul, W.J., Mech, L.D., & Weisberg, S. (2008). Effectiveness of Lethal, Directed Wolf-Depredation Control in Minnesota.
- Journal of Wildlife Management, 72(3), 778-784.
- This research evaluates the effectiveness of lethal control measures for reducing wolf depredation on livestock, concluding that the overall impact of wolves is limited.

6. Bangs, E.E., Fontaine, J.A., Jimenez, M.D., Meier, T.J., Bradley, E.H., Niemeyer, C.C., Smith, D.W., Mack, C.M., Asher, V.J., & Oakleaf, J.K. (2005). Managing Wolf Conflicts in the Northwestern United States.
- In People and Wildlife: Conflict or Coexistence? (pp. 340-356).
- This chapter discusses the management of wolves in the northwestern United States, including data on the relatively low incidence of livestock depredation.

7. Muhly, T.B., & Musiani, M. (2009). Livestock Depredation by Wolves and the Ranching Economy in the Northwestern U.S.
- Ecological Economics, 68(8-9), 2439-2450.
- This study explores the economic impact of wolf depredation on livestock, finding that the overall financial losses are minimal compared to other factors affecting the ranching economy.

8. Stone, S.A., Breck, S.W., Timberlake, J., Haswell, P.M., Najera, V., Bean, B.S., & Thornhill, D.J. (2017). Adaptive Use of Nonlethal Strategies for Minimizing Wolf-Sheep Conflict in Idaho.
- Journal of Mammalogy, 98(1), 33-44.
- This paper examines nonlethal strategies for reducing wolf-livestock conflicts and highlights the low rate of wolf depredation on livestock when such measures are implemented.

On Coexistence Strategies

These studies collectively highlight the success and potential of various nonlethal mitigation strategies in reducing livestock depredation by wolves.

1. Shivik, J.A., Treves, A., & Callahan, P. (2003). Nonlethal Techniques for Managing Predation: Primary and Secondary Repellents.
- Conservation Biology, 17(6), 1531-1537.
- This paper discusses various nonlethal techniques, including the use of repellents and aversive conditioning, and their success in mitigating livestock losses to wolves.

2. Gehring, T.M., VerCauteren, K.C., Provost, M.L., & Cellar, A.C. (2010). Utility of Livestock-Protection Dogs for Deterring Wildlife from Cattle Farms.
- Wildlife Research, 37(8), 715-721.
- This study evaluates the effectiveness of livestock guardian dogs in deterring wolves and other predators from cattle farms.

3. Breck, S.W., & Meier, T.J. (2004). Managing Wolf Depredation in the United States: Past, Present, and Future.
- In Biology and Conservation of Wild Canids (pp. 335-345).
- This paper reviews the history and effectiveness of various wolf depredation management strategies, including nonlethal methods.

4. Lance, N.J., Breck, S.W., Sime, C., Callahan, P., & Shivik, J.A. (2010). Biological, Technical, and Social Aspects of Applying Electrified Fladry for Livestock Protection from Wolves (Canis lupus).
- Wildlife Research, 37(8), 708-714.
- This research investigates the use of electrified fladry as a nonlethal deterrent to protect livestock from wolves, highlighting its effectiveness and practical considerations.

5. Eklund, A., López-Bao, J.V., Tourani, M., Chapron, G., & Frank, J. (2017). Limited Evidence on the Effectiveness of Interventions to Reduce Livestock Predation by Large Carnivores.
- Scientific Reports, 7(1), 2097.
- This study reviews the effectiveness of various interventions, including nonlethal methods, in reducing livestock predation by large carnivores, including wolves.

6. Miller, J.R.B., Stoner, K.J., Cejtin, M.R., Meyer, T.K., Middleton, A.D., & Schmitz, O.J. (2016). Effectiveness of Contemporary Techniques for Reducing Livestock Depredations by Large Carnivores.
- Wildlife Society Bulletin, 40(4), 806-815.
- This paper evaluates the success of contemporary nonlethal techniques, such as range riders and night corrals, in reducing livestock depredations by large carnivores.

7. van Eeden, L.M., Eklund, A., Miller, J.R.B., López-Bao, J.V., Chapron, G., Cejtin, M.R., Crowther, M.S., & Dickman, C.R. (2018). Carnivore Conservation Needs Evidence-Based Livestock Protection.
- PLoS Biology, 16(9), e2005577.
- This study emphasizes the importance of evidence-based approaches in carnivore conservation and evaluates the effectiveness of various livestock protection measures.